Materials based on group IVA elements for alloying-type sodium storage

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51672182, 51772197, 51872192), the Thousand Young Talents Plan, the Jiangsu Natural Science Foundation (BK20180002, BK20151219), the Key University Science Research Project of Jiangsu Province (17KJA430013), the 333 High-Level Talents Project in Jiangsu Province, the Six Talent Peaks Project in Jiangsu Province, and of the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD).

Interest statement

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References

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Figure 1
Gravimetric and volumetric capacity of Si, Ge and Sn anodes for SIBs (color online).
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Figure 2
Crystal structures of cubic Si (a), cubic Ge (b), and tetragonal Sn (c) (color online).
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Figure 3
Electrochemical tests of Si NP electrodes. (a) Capacity retention and Coulombic efficiency; (b) GITT desodiation/sodiation test (current pulses: 20 mA g⁻¹ for 5 min during charge/discharge; relaxation for 25 min). GITT was carried out on a battery cell after cycling at 20 mA g⁻¹ for five cycles. Reproduced with permission [28], copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH (color online).
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Figure 4
(a) Schematic diagram of the fabrication process of Ge@G@TiO₂ NFs and sodium ion storage behaviors of Ge@G@TiO₂, Ge@G, and Ge composite electrodes; (b) cyclic voltammetry curves of Ge@G@TiO₂ between 0.01 and 2.5 V with a scan rate of 0.2 mV s⁻¹ and the inset SEM of Ge@G@TiO₂ NFs; (c) rate performance of three different electrodes at different current rates. Reproduced with permission [22], copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH (color online).
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Figure 5
(a) Schematic illustration of the electrodeposition system for the synthesis of the Sn nanofibers; (b) cycle performance and Coulombic efficiency of the Sn nanofibers at a rate of 0.1 C over a voltage range of 0.001 to 0.65 V (vs. Na/Na⁺). Reproduced with permission [54], copyright 2014, American Chemical Society (color online).
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Figure 6
(a) Schematic illustration of ESD technique to fabricate a carbon-coated 3D porous interconnected SnS; (b) XRD pattern of such SnS/C nanocomposite and the inset SEM of carbon-coated 3D porous interconnected SnS; (c) the rate performance; (d) cycling performance and Coulombic efficiency at current density of 1 A g⁻¹ cycling for sodium storage. Reproduced with permission [68], copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH (color online).
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Figure 7
(a–d) Schematic illustration for the sodiation and desodiation. Yellow outlayer denotes carbon. (e) Cycling performance of the SnP₃/C electrode at a current rate of 150 mA g⁻¹. Reproduced with permission [15],copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH (color online).

Table 1 Technical requirements for sodium anode materials

Item	Requirement
Gravimetric capacity	≥300 mA h g⁻¹
Desodiation voltage	≤2 V
Initial Coulombic efficiency	≥80%
Cycle stability	60% upon 500 cycles
Rate performance	2 C rate charge/discharge
Low temperature at −20 °C	60% of capacity at room temperature
High temperature at 60 °C	90% of capacity at room temperature
Safety	Free of Na dendrite
Cost	Close to graphite

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